1. 血鈣正常值:9–10.5 mg/dL or 2.2–2.6 mmol/L
2. 一般無明顯症狀,需要做檢查才會發現。
3. 發生原因有:過多的鈣離子由骨骼釋放出來、腸吸收鈣離子增加、腎功能不好(鈣離子由腎臟排出)
4. 症狀:
A. 神經方面:疲勞、無力、意識混亂、體反射下降、抽搐、精神疾病、昏迷、譫妄。
B. 全身性:脫水、口渴、多尿、乾眼症、虛弱、骨痛。
C. 腸胃道:食慾降低、噁心、嘔吐、體重減輕、便秘、腹痛。
D. 心血管:shortened Q-T interval、prolonged、prolonged P-R interval, wide T waves、心律不整、心跳減慢。
E. 腎臟:脫水、口渴、多尿、腎結石、急性腎衰竭。
參見
Hypercalcemia(高血鈣症)
預後(prognosis)
在醫學上,“預後”是指根據經驗預測的疾病發展情況。它既包括判斷疾病的特定後果(如康複,某種症狀、體征和並發症等其它異常的出現或消失及死亡)。也包括提供時間線索,如預測某段時間内發生某種結局的可能性。由於預後是一種可能性,主要指病人群體而不是個人。
一、研究目的
研究預後的目的是爲了認識疾病發展過程的規律,發現早期破譯預後信息的方法;創設和運用有效治療手段,掌握診療的制動權 ;幹預不良的自然預後,改善不良的治療預後,提高醫療水平,提高生活質量。同時,預後研究的水平是現代科學技術水平 、醫學科學水平的真實反映,預後研究是醫學進步的動力之一。
資料來源:中文百科在線
症狀(symptom)
症狀(英語:symptom),醫學術語,在疾病學的領域裡,「症狀」是描述疾病的很重要的參數之一,它代表的是「來自病人的主觀感受」
一、定義
英文的symptom,字根來自於希臘文σύμπτωμα,意思是降臨在你身上的不幸與惡運。
在中文裡,「症狀」常和「體徵」被搞混,舉例來說,流鼻涕、頭昏及體溫超過三十八度,這三者都是感冒的元素,但流鼻水及頭昏是感冒的症狀,而體溫超過三十八度,則是感冒的體徵。
資料來源:維基百科
侵犯(invasion)
是指惡性腫瘤連續不斷地浸潤、破壞周圍組織器官的生長狀態,即直接蔓延
轉移之前,腫瘤細胞得先突破ECM(extracellular matrix;結締組織或基底膜),以下是其細胞invasion的四個步驟
1. 腫瘤細胞互相分開
細胞和細胞之間靠E-cadherins(鈣黏素)來黏著,因此要讓細胞分開就是要使E-cadherins失去功能性。
2. 分解ECM
• 腫瘤細胞分泌第四型膠原酶(如MMPs及cathepsins),溶解掉由第四型膠原所構成之基底膜。
• 也可誘使間質細胞自己產生蛋白酶。
3.腫瘤細胞接觸ECM蛋白
腫瘤細胞以受器與ECM蛋白(laminin、fibronection)相接,進一步破壞膠原蛋白與ECM蛋白。正常細胞此時會死亡,癌細胞則不會
4.移行locomotion
• 經由分解的基底膜和分解的蛋白的基底區,產生變形蟲運動,與外頭蛋白相連,進入間質,把腫瘤細胞往前推進。
• 腫瘤的移行主要和自己分泌的運動分子(cytokines)有關,但也和細胞周圍環境的各種生長因子、細胞外間內各種cytokine、chemokine、免疫細胞有密切的關連。

資料來源:自然期刊
胺基酸代謝疾病(amino acid metabolism diseases)
| Disorder | Biochemical derangement | Classical findingsa |
|---|---|---|
| Branched-chain amino aciduria (maple syrup urine disease) | Defective branched-chain amino acid breakdown (Fig. 44-1) | Coma, convulsions, vomiting, respiratory failure in neonate |
| Branched-chain organic acidurias | Failure of organic acid oxidation (Fig. 44-1), isovaleric, methylmalonic, propionic, etc. | Similar to above, may be metabolic acidemia and odd odor; often confused with sepsis of newborn; urine contains excessive amounts of different organic acids, depending on the nature of the defect; partial defects may present in later infancy or childhood |
| Glutaric acidurias | Type I: Primary defect of glutarate oxidation (Fig. 44-3) | Severe basal ganglia/cerebellar disease with macrocephaly, onset 1 to 2 years |
| Type II: Defect of electron transfer flavoprotein (Fig. 44-3) | Fulminant neurological syndrome of the neonate, often with renal/hepatic cysts, usually fatal | |
| Phenylketonuria (PKU) | Usually defect of phenylalanine hydroxylase. In rare cases, defect of biopterin metabolism (Fig. 44-4, reaction 1) | Normal at birth, mental retardation in untreated children, avoidable with early institution of diet therapy, prognosis less favorable in PKU secondary to defect of biopterin metabolism |
| Nonketotic hyperglycinemia | Defect of glycine-cleavage system (Fig. 44-5) | Intractable seizures in neonate, usually fatal in first few weeks of life |
| Homocystinuria | Usually a failure of cystathionine synthase (Fig. 44-2, reaction 5), rarely associated with aberrant vitamin B12 metabolism (Fig. 44-2) | Thromboembolic diathesis, marfanoid habitus, ectopia lentis; mental retardation is frequent |
| Urea cycle defects | Failure to convert ammonia to urea via urea cycle (Fig. 44-6) | Coma, convulsions, vomiting, respiratory failure in neonate; often mistaken for sepsis of the newborn; mental retardation, failure to thrive, lethargy, ataxia and coma in the older child; associated with hyperammonemia and abnormalities of blood aminogram |
| Defects of biotin metabolism | Failure to “activate” biotin, which is important in carboxylation of organic acids | Hypotonia, ataxia, acidosis, coma, dermatitis in the neonate; mental retardation and deafness in the older child |
| Disorders of glutathione metabolism | Defective synthesis of glutathione, the major intracellular antioxidant (Fig. 44-7) | Spinocerebellar degeneration, mental retardation, cataracts, hemolysis; severe acidosis in some cases |
| Disorders of GABAmetabolism | Often an absence of succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase | Hypotonia, ataxia, mental retardation in the older child; increased urine 4-OH-butyric acid |
| Canavan's disease | Absence of N-acetylaspartate acylase | Rapidly progressive demyelinating disease of infancy |